---
title: "8. Eigenvalues: Spectral Decomposition"
author: "Michael Friendly"
date: "`r Sys.Date()`"
output: rmarkdown::html_vignette
vignette: >
  %\VignetteIndexEntry{8. Eigenvalues: Spectral Decomposition}
  %\VignetteEngine{knitr::rmarkdown}
  %\VignetteEncoding{UTF-8}
---

```{r, echo = FALSE}
knitr::opts_chunk$set(
  warning = FALSE,
  message = FALSE
)
options(digits=4)
```
```{r}
library(matlib)   # use the package
```

## Setup

This vignette uses an example of a $3 \times 3$ matrix to illustrate some properties of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors.  We could consider this to be the variance-covariance matrix of three variables,
but the main thing is that the matrix is **square** and **symmetric**, which guarantees that the eigenvalues, $\lambda_i$ are
real numbers, and non-negative, $\lambda_i \ge 0$.

```{r}
A <- matrix(c(13, -4, 2, -4, 11, -2, 2, -2, 8), 3, 3, byrow=TRUE)
A
```


Get the eigenvalues and eigenvectors using `eigen()`;  this returns a named list, with eigenvalues named `values` and
eigenvectors named `vectors`. We call these `L` and `V` here, but in formulas they correspond to
a diagonal matrix, $\mathbf{\Lambda} = diag(\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \lambda_3)$, and a (orthogonal) matrix $\mathbf{V}$.
```{r}
ev <- eigen(A)
# extract components
(L <- ev$values)
(V <- ev$vectors)
```

## Matrix factorization

1.  Factorization of A: A = V diag(L) V'. That is, the matrix $\mathbf{A}$ can be represented as the product
$\mathbf{A}= \mathbf{V} \mathbf{\Lambda} \mathbf{V}'$.
```{r}
V %*% diag(L) %*% t(V)
```


2. V diagonalizes A: L = V' A V.  That is, the matrix $\mathbf{V}$ transforms $\mathbf{A}$ into the diagonal
matrix $\mathbf{\Lambda}$, corresponding to orthogonal (uncorrelated) variables.
```{r}
diag(L)
zapsmall(t(V) %*% A %*% V)
```

## Spectral decomposition

The basic idea here is that each eigenvalue--eigenvector pair generates a rank 1 matrix, $\lambda_i \mathbf{v}_i \mathbf{v}_i '$,
and these sum to the original matrix, $\mathbf{A} = \sum_i \lambda_i \mathbf{v}_i \mathbf{v}_i '$.

```{r}
A1 = L[1] * V[,1] %*% t(V[,1])
A1

A2 = L[2] * V[,2] %*% t(V[,2])
A2

A3 = L[3] * V[,3] %*% t(V[,3])
A3
```

Then, summing them gives `A`, so they do decompose `A`:

```{r}
A1 + A2 + A3
all.equal(A, A1+A2+A3)
```

### Further properties

1. Sum of squares of A = sum of sum of squares of A1, A2, A3
```{r}
sum(A^2)
c( sum(A1^2), sum(A2^2), sum(A3^2) )
sum( sum(A1^2), sum(A2^2), sum(A3^2) )
#' same as tr(A' A)
tr(crossprod(A))
```

2. Each squared eigenvalue gives the sum of squares accounted for by the latent vector
```{r}
L^2
cumsum(L^2)   # cumulative
```

3. The first $i$ eigenvalues and vectors give a rank $i$ approximation to `A`
```{r}
R(A1)
R(A1 + A2)
R(A1 + A2 + A3)
# two dimensions
sum((A1+A2)^2)
sum((A1+A2)^2) / sum(A^2)   # proportion
```